Drug Therapy

Corticosteroids (prednisone, deflazacort etc)

Current status: corticosteroids are part of the standards of care

Marketing authorization done for vamorolone with EMA and FDA

Aim:
To suppress the immune system in order to reduce the formation of scar tissue.

Background:
Corticosteroids are a group of drugs that can suppress the immune system. When muscle tissue is damaged, this will elicit an immune response (the body does not know what causes the damage – it could well be a virus, bacteria etc). While the immune response has the best intensions (to protect the body from infections), in this case the immune system increases the severity of the disease. Immune cells excrete toxic substances (aimed to kill bacteria etc), which further increase muscle damage and enhance the formation of scar tissue.
By suppressing the immune system with corticosteroids, muscle damage will be less severe and less scar tissue will be formed. Corticosteroids delay Duchenne disease progression and therefore they are part of the standards of care for DMD even though chronic use is associated with side effects.

Clinical trials:
Two types of corticosteroids are used by Duchenne patients: deflazacort and prednisone or its active metabolite prednisolone. Different doses and regimen are used, but the most frequently used regimen are daily deflazacort at 0. 9 mg/kg, daily prednisone or prednisolone at 0.75 mg/kg or a 10 days on 10 days off regimen of 0.75 mg/kg prednisone or prednisolone. Comparing the different regimen has occurred mainly in patient cohorts who had been treated for years (retrospective analysis). To compare the regimen in a more controlled prospective manner the FOR-DMD trial was conducted comparing the 3 most frequently used regimen. The results have recently been published. The study showed that steroid treatment in any regimen slows down disease progression. There was no difference between daily deflazacort and daily prednisone, while the on/off prednisone group did better than no steroids, but worse than those on daily steroids. No clear difference in side effects were seen in the different steroid regimen during the 3 year trial. Longer term follow up will reveal whether there is a difference after longer treatment.

To consider:

It is very likely that corticosteroids work on other levels than only immune suppression (it is thought they can increase expression of utrophin and/or stabilize muscle fibers, so they are less sensitive to damage). This is still under investigation. However, the finding that drugs that only suppress the immune system are less effective than corticosteroids (see e.g. below in the section on cyclosporine),
underlines this idea.

Challenge 1:
It is unknown when best to start with corticosteroids. Due to the adverse effects (stunting growth, obesity and increased osteoporosis) most clinicians do not start before age 3-4 years.

Clinical trial:
To test whether starting before age 3 years is beneficial, a clinical trial is ongoing in 1-30 month old DMD patients. Patients take high doses of prednisone only twice per week to lower the chance of side effects.

Vamorolone

Chronic use of corticosteroids is associated with side effects including reduced growth, weight gain, behavioral changes, increased risk of fractures and delayed puberty. Vamorolone (previously VBP15) is a non-steroid compound developed by Reveragen Biopharma. Development is currently coordinated by Santhera. The hope is that this compound induces the beneficial effects of corticosteroids, but not the side effects. In the mdx mouse model this was indeed observed. A phase 1 trial in healthy volunteers has been completed. A phase 2a trial in patients has been completed in the USA. Patients were enrolled in an open label study, of which results from 18 months follow up have now been published: dose dependent functional improvements have been observed in patients in the open label phase after 18 months of treatment compared to steroid naive patients from natural history datasets, while less side effects were seen than for steroid treated patients from natural history datasets. Phase 2b trials results have now been published where vamorolone treatment at 2 and 6 mg/kg/day was compared to placebo and prednisone treatment for 24 weeks This revealed that treatment with 2 or 6 mg/kg vamorolone improved muscle function compared to placebo and that 6 mg/kg vamorolone had equivalent effects as 0.75 mg/kg/day prednisone. Vamorolone treatment did not have an impact on height or bone turnover when compared to placebo, while prednisone treatment resulted in decreased growth and increased bone turnover.

Based on these results marketing authorization applications have been done with the FDA and the EMA.

ATL1102

The company Antisense Therapeutics is developing ATL1102, an antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) compound (small piece of modified RNA) that targets CD49d, a protein that is elevated in Duchenne patients. The rationale is that reducing CD49d will result in a reduced immune response and thus a slower disease progression. A first clinical trial in Duchenne patients showed that weekly subcutaneous treatment was well tolerated and resulted in reduced levels of inflammatory cells in the blood.  A placebo-controlled trial to study this compound in non-ambulatory patients is currently ongoing.

 Deflazacort

Marathon Pharmaceuticals has conducted an open label study for deflazacort in the US in DMD patients which was at the time not marketed. They have obtained approval for treatment of DMD in the US by the FDA. PTC has obtained the rights to deflazacort in the US and is currently marketing the drug.

Tested but found ineffective:

Edasalonexent

CAT1004 (edasalonexent) is an anti-inflammatory drug developed by Catabasis. It has been tested in healthy adults. A two stage phase 1/2 study in DMD patients has recently been completed. Edasalonexent was safe and well tolerated. No anti-inflammatory effect could be picked up by MRI when comparing placebo and treatment groups after 12 weeks of treatment. All boys were then switched to the high dose group. After 48-60 weeks of treatment, muscle function seems to be stabilized compared to the progression before treatment initiation. Patients still receive treatment in an open label phase. A phase 3 confirmatory trial has been completed and results have been published. Unfortunately the primary endpoint was not reached: patients treated with edasalonexent for 48 weeks did not improve significantly compared to the placebo group for the North Star Ambulatory Assessment scale or timed function tests.

Cyclosporin

Background:
Cyclosporin is a drug that suppresses the immune system. When muscle tissue is damaged, this will elicit an immune response (the body does not know what causes the damage – it could well be a virus, a bacteria etc). While the immune response has the best intensions (to protect the body from infections), in this case the immune system increase the pathology. Immune cells excrete toxic substances (aimed to kill bacteria etc), which further increases muscle damage and enhances the formation of scar tissue.

By suppressing the immune system with cyclosporin, muscle damage will thus be less severe and less scar tissue will be formed. It is thought to induce less side effects than corticosteroids.

Clinical trial:
A clinical trial was performed in Germany (Rudolf Korinthenberg in Freiburg) to assess whether cyclosporine treatment indeed is beneficial for patients. Unfortunately, no difference was observed between patients treated with and without cyclosporine.

MNK1411

MNK1411 (cosyntropin) is a manmade hormone that has similar anti-inflammatory effects as corticosteroids. Results in mdx mice suggest that MNK1411 treatment results in less inflammation. The company Mallinckrodt Pharmaceuticals is initiated a placebo-controlled clinical trial in DMD patients to test whether injections with MNK1411 have therapeutic effects. Due to poor enrollment this trial has been terminated.

Current status: clinical trials ongoing with various anti-fibrotic compounds

Chronic inflammation results in fibrosis (scar tissue formation). Furthermore the chronic muscle pathology also causes damage to the energy producing organelles in the muscle fibers, the mitochondria. Once this happens, the mitochondria will cause oxidative stress, which in turn results in more fibrosis. Compounds aiming to reduce fibrosis often are targeting inflammation and/or aim to improve mitochondria function.

 FibroGen’s FG-3019 (pamrevlumab) is an antibody against CTGF, a growth factor that plays a key role in the production and maintenance of fibrotic tissue. Pamrevlumab is anticipated to prevent CTGF from functioning and in this way reduce the amount of fibrosis formation. Results of an open label study have been published, where treatment might slow down respiratory function decline compared to natural history. A clinical trial to evaluate pamrevlumab in non-ambulatory DMD patients in a placebo-controlled setting has been completed and did not show a difference in the primary endpoint (performance upper limb function).  A clinical trial in ambulatory patients is ongoing.

Epicatechin is a molecule that is similar to a hormone produced by the energy producing organelles of the cells (mitochondria) upon exercise. Epicatechin results in the production of mitochondria and improved tissue regeneration in animal models and resulted in reduced fibrosis in muscular dystrophy models. A small pilot study in Becker muscular dystrophy patients was encouraging and showed treatment with epicatechin was well tolerated. A trial in non-ambulant Duchenne patients coordinated by Cardero Therapeutics and UC-Davis is currently completed. Analysis of the results is ongoing. A trial to assess the safety of Coenzyme Q10 (another antioxidant) with and without co-treatment of lisinopril is ongoing (but no longer recruiting) in the US in DMD, Becker and Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy patients.

ASP0367 (bocidelpar) is an oral compounds to improve the function and number of mitochondria. It is developed by Astellas and a Phase 1b clinical trial for ambulatory and non ambulatory patients is currently ongoing.

Ifetroban is an oral compound that aims to reduce inflammation and fibrosis especially in heart by targeting thromboxane receptors. This compound has been shown to reduce inflammation and fibrosis for other diseases. Cumberland therapeutics is conducting a clinical trial in Duchenne patients.

Additional compounds to reduce fibrosis are evaluated in preclinical studies, e.g. MTB-1 from Astellas which aims to improve the function and number of mitochondria.

 Tested but found to be inefficient

Halofuginone

Aim:
To reduce inflammation and fibrosis and improve regeneration.

Background:
Halofuginone is a compound that helps muscle regeneration, reduces inflammation and reduces fibrosis.

Challenge:
Halofuginone is not very well tolerated (gastro-intestinal problems).

Solution:
A different formulation of this compound has been generated (HT-100) by Akashi Therapeutics that is better tolerated.

Clinical trial:
A first clinical trial testing the safety of HT-100 was completed for DMD patients in the USA. This trial was temporarily put on hold because toxicity was observed in dogs at very high doses. However, after further testing and re-evaluation of the data FDA allowed the trial to continue. Preliminary results suggested that HT-100 is well tolerated. An improvement in muscle strength compared to baseline was observed for treated patients. A confirmatory study was initiated but has been suspended after a patient participating in the trial sadly passed away. It was revealed that this patient received a much higher dose of HT-100 than expected. The development of HT-100 for treatment of DMD has been terminated

Idebenone (Puldysa®)

Aim:
To reduce scar formation.

Background:
Due to the loss of dystrophin, skeletal and heart muscle of Duchenne patients are under continuous stress (oxidative stress), which is yet another process that leads to the formation of scar tissue and also impairs the energy production of muscle fibers by the mitochondria (power generators). In muscle this leads to loss of muscle function. In heart, it results in a reduced pump function (the heart becomes “stiffer”). Idebenone helps the mitochondria (power generators of the cells) to generate energy. Idebenone (Raxone) also reduces oxidative stress (it is an antioxidant), in heart and skeletal muscle, to prevent scar tissue formation. Thus, the heart pathology that is seen in many adolescent patients could be delayed or even prevented and skeletal muscle quality should be maintained longer.

Clinical trials:
Santhera has tested idebenone in Duchenne patients and has shown it is safe. A Phase III study has also been performed to assess the effectiveness of Idebenone on pulmonary function, motor function, muscle strength and quality of life in patients not using cortcosteroids. Results show that idebenone was well tolerated and a slower decline in respiratory function was observed for treated patients compared to the placebo group. A placebo-controlled phase 3 study in patients using corticosteroids was initiated. Santhera has filed for marketing authorization with both the European Medicine Agencies (EMA) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2016. July 2016 the FDA indicated that they need trial results from steroid-treated patients at the time of filing and therefore cannot consider the current application. In 2017 and 2018 the Committee for Human Medicinal Products gave a negative opinion on the use of Idebenone for DMD. In May 2019 Santhera filed for conditional marketing authorization with EMA for the treatment of respiratory dysfunction. However, in October 2020 Santhera announced they stopped the phase 3 clinical trial as an interim analysis had revealed the primary endpoint would not be met. They then also withdrew the marketing authorization application from EMA.

 Discontinued:
Pentoxifylline has been tested in a clinical trial and was found not to slow down disease progression and was poorly tolerated by patients. Flavocoxid is another antioxidant that has been tested in a phase 1 trial in Duchenne patients to assess safety.

HDAC Inhibition

Current status: marketing authorization application done with FDA and EMA

Our body consists of proteins. Most of these proteins are made by our cells using genes as a genetic blueprint (or a recipe) for protein production. Each cell contains a copy of all genes and could in theory thus produce all proteins. However, muscle cells will produce only proteins needed in muscle and e.g. liver cells will produce only proteins needed in liver. Humans have 20,000 genes but generally only a subset is used in any given tissue. To make the process easier, a cell will highlight genes it often uses (like using a sticky note in a recipe book for a favourite recipe) and will also mark genes that are not used.

Because the proteins produced in muscle differ from the proteins produced in scar tissue, the genes that are marked as ‘used’ and ‘not-used’ differ between these tissues. This means that once muscle tissue becomes fibrotic, the way genes are marked will change as well, leading to a further tendency of the muscle to become fibrotic (as the cell has more difficulty finding the muscle genes, while the fibrotic genes are highlighted).

HDAC-inhibitors are compounds that can ‘reset’ this system, thus removing the highlights of fibrotic genes and also clearing the “not used” makers for muscle genes. In the mdx mouse model treatment with HDAC-inhibitors improved regeneration and muscle quality and decreased formation of fibrosis.

Clinical trials:
Givinostat is an HDAC-inhibitor that has been shown safe in children and has been tested in DMD patients in a trial in Italy by Italfarmaco. Results from the first small trial showed that treatment for one year was well tolerated. For a small number of patients, reductions in platelets were observed shortly after treatment initiation. Analysis of muscle biopsies suggested a reduction of fibrosis, necrosis and fat when comparing pre- and post-treatment biopsies. An open label extension trial is currently ongoing and patients have been treated for up to 5 years. Analysis of these patients suggests a delay in loss of ambulation compared to natural history controls. A placebo controlled trial phase 3 clinical trial to test the safety and efficacy  in ambulant DMD showed that patients treated for 72 weeks did significantly better on the 4 stairs climb test than the placebo group (primary endpoint). They also did better on the 6 minute walk test, the North Star Ambulatory Assessment and timed function tests. MRI analysis showed reduced increases in fat in the muscle for givinostat treated patients compared to the placebo group. Based on these results Italfarmaco has submitted a marketing authorization application for givinostat for Duchenne patients with the. The FDA will take a decision on December 21 2023.

Edgewise

Lacking dystrophin muscle fibers are sensitive for damage during contraction. This is especially the case for fibers with a large diameter. Edgewise is developing an oral compound (EDG5506) that can protect the muscle fibers most sensitive to damage. This compound is currently tested in healthy volunteers and Becker muscular dystrophy patients, and in Duchenne patients.

Normalizing calcium homeostasis

Current status: clinical trials to test various compounds are ongoing

Rationale:
Due to the lack of dystrophin the calcium channel in muscle fibers is leaky. This leads to abnormal calcium levels within the muscle, leading to muscle damage, oxidative stress and fibrosis. A drug that can normalize the calcium levels in muscle fibers is rimeporide (from Esperare). A phase 1 trial in DMD patients has been  completed and showed good tolerability of remiporide. Esperare is currently planning a phase 2 trial to further test this drug in DMD patients.

Follistatin gene delivery

Aim:
To increase muscle mass by antagonizing the muscle growth inhibitor myostatin.

Background:
Follistatin is a protein that inhibits myostatin. As is described above, myostatin is a protein that inhibits muscle growth. Thus, by increasing the levels of follistatin, the inhibitor is inhibited, which will lead to an increase in muscle mass. The follistatin gene has been delivered to mice and monkeys using an AAV viral vector (see gene therapy for more details about the challenges and prospects of gene therapy). The injections resulted in an increase in muscle mass and muscle strength.

Clinical trials:
A clinical trial where AAV viral vectors with the follistatin gene are injected in the quadriceps of Becker patients is ongoing at Nationwide Children’s Hospital (Columbus Ohio). The aim is to assess whether this is safe and whether it can improve quadriceps muscle mass and strength. In a follow up study this approach has been tested in Duchenne patients.

Tested but failed to show efficacy

 Tamoxifen

Tamoxifen is an approved drug to treat estrogen-dependent breast cancer. Studies by Urs Ruegg and Olivier Dorchies in Geneva in mdx mice have shown that tamoxifen treatment reduces fibrosis formation and improves muscle repair. Based on this finding, a clinical trial in DMD patients was initiated. Unfortunately, it was revealed that treatment did not slow down disease progression.

 Myostatin inhibition

Aim:
To increase muscle mass by reducing the levels of the muscle growth inhibitor myostatin and related factors.

Background:
There are factors that enhance the formation of muscle and factors that inhibit muscle formation (not all tissues should be muscle and because muscles use a lot of energy, they should not be bigger than necessary). Myostatin is one of the main factors that inhibit muscle growth (it lowers the volume setting of many muscle-related genes), but there are related proteins with similar functions. Myostatin and related proteins bind to “receptors” on the muscle cells. The binding is a signal for the muscle fiber to stop growing (i.e. the volume of muscle related genes is turned down, so less muscle proteins are made). When the gene for the myostatin protein is mutated and no myostatin is made, this leads to increased muscle formation in animals (Belgium blue cattle, Texel sheep, greyhounds, mice) and humans. This observation resulted in proposing myostatin inhibition as a potential way to improve muscle mass for Duchenne patients, i.e. if it is possible to prevent myostatin from doing its job, this should enhance muscle formation and compensate for the loss of muscle tissue in Duchenne patients. Myostatin inhibition can be achieved by antibodies for myostatin. These antibodies bind to myostatin and prevent it from reaching the gene switches and turning down the volume. The same can be achieved by making a soluble receptor for myostatin. These will bind to myostatin, but because they are soluble, there is no relaying of the signal. At the same time, the binding to the soluble receptors will prevent the myostatin from binding to the muscle-linked receptors.

Clinical trials:
Myostatin antibodies have been tested in healthy volunteers and were deemed safe. They were consecutively tested in adult patients with muscle diseases. While treatment was safe, it did not result in an increase in muscle mass in the patients. However, patients were only treated for 28 days, which might not have been long enough.

A new trial to test a myostatin antibody (domagrozumab, PF06252616 from Pfizer) has been completed in healthy volunteers. A phase 2 trial to test this three different doses antibody in Duchenne patients has been discontinued. Patients were be treated for 96 weeks, receiving the antibody for the first or the last 48 weeks or for 96 weeks. However, Pfizer announced in August 2018 that the primary end point (time to climb 4 stairs) was not met after 48 weeks of treatment and that none of the secondary outcome measures were suggestive of a treatment effect. Accordingly, they stopped the development of this antibody for Duchenne.

Bristol-Meyers-Squibb has developed another myostatin antibody-like drug called BMS-986089 (adnectin). Adnectin development has now been taken over by Roche. The compound has been tested in healthy volunteers and was well tolerated. A trial to assess safety was performed in ambulatory Duchenne patients in the USA and Canada as well as a global follow up study to assess efficacy. Preliminary data analysis unfortunately revealed no therapeutic effects of adnectin treatment compared to placebo and development of adnectin for treatment of Duchenne was stopped.

The company Acceleron (now taken over by Shire) has generated a soluble myostatin receptor (ACE-031) that outperformed the myostatin antibodies in Duchenne mouse models, probably because in addition to myostatin it can also bind other factors that reduce muscle size. This soluble receptor has been tested in healthy volunteers. This was well tolerated and led to increased muscle mass in a dose dependent manner, with an increase of ~1 kg for the highest dose in a period of 2 weeks. A dose escalation safety trial with ACE-031 in Duchenne patients has been terminated because some patients suffered from unexplained nose and gum bleeding. The most likely explanation is that the soluble receptor could bind other signal peptides in addition to myostatin (i.e. it is less specific than the myostatin antibodies described above). Additional tests in animal models have been performed and unfortunately the results did not support further development of this compound.

Normalizing calcium homeostasis

Rationale:
Due to the lack of dystrophin the calcium channel in muscle fibers is leaky. This leads to abnormal calcium levels within the muscle, leading to muscle damage, oxidative stress and fibrosis. A drug that can normalize the calcium levels in muscle fibers is rimeporide (from Esperare). A phase 1 trial in DMD patients has been  completed and showed good tolerability of remiporide. Esperare is currently planning a phase 2 trial to further test this drug in DMD patients.

Status: different compounds are or have been tested in clinical tirals

Aim:
To improve heart and/or muscle function

Background:
When muscles contract blood is pushed out of the blood vessels, while contracting muscles actually need more blood (oxygen and nutrients). To compensate normally blood vessels in the muscle will dilate upon contraction. This is in part regulated by production of nitric oxide (NO) by the nNOS synthase enzyme. This enzyme is scaffolded to the membrane of muscle in blood vessels by dystrophin. Without dystrophin the nNOS synthase enzyme is not located properly and thus the ability to dilate blood vessels in heart and muscle is reduced. This can lead to insufficient oxygen supply to muscle and heart, which leads to damaged muscle and heart cells. There are many approved drugs that can improve the dilation of blood vessels. The drugs listed below are or have been tested in Duchenne patients in clinical trials.

Lisinopril

Lisinopril is an ACE inhibitor (ACE is an abbreviation of angiotensin converting enzyme). The molecule angiotensin 2 leads to constriction of blood vessels. This molecule is converted from angiotensin 1 by ACE. Thus, by inhibiting this conversion, less angiotensin 2 is produced, reducing constriction of blood vessels. The effect of lisinopril on heart function has been currently tested in Duchenne patients in sites in the USA, Japan and Canada. This trial also tests whether combined use of Coenzyme Q10 (an antioxidant) and lisinopril has further benefits on heart muscle function. Results have not yet been reported.

Other compounds for dilation of blood vessels

Spironolactone and eplerenone have shown encouraging results in mouse models, where treatment could prevent heart failure. These compounds are now tested in a clinical trial in DMD patients. Results about this clinical trial have been published: this revealed that there were no additive effects of spironolactone on top of eplerenone.

Discontinued:

Revatio (Sildenafil) and Tadalafil

Revatio® (also known as Sildenafil or Viagra) and Tadalafil are PDE5 inhibitors. When NO is produced, this leads to a cascade of reactions that lead to dilation of blood vessels. PDE enzymes target compounds produced during this cascade, counteracting the dilatation of the blood vessel. Inhibition of PDE enzymes leads to a prolonged effect of dilatation.

Clincial trial:
Revatio has been tested in a clinical trial in DMD and BMD patients in Baltimore (MD, USA). However, this trial has been suspended, since results showed that Revatio is unlikely to provide benefit to adult DMD heart and muscle function, while there was a potential risk for cardiac events.

Based on the encouraging results of a pilot trial with tadalafil performed in a small cohort of DMD patients by Ron Victor, Eli Lilly as started a double-blind placebo-controlled trial in 330 DMD patients. Unfortunately, the results did not reveal any evidence for efficacy of tadalafil in slowing down disease progression in the whole group or in subgroups. As such, extension trials have been stopped. Eli Lilly has indicated that they are willing to share data obtained in this trial with the DMD community to help the clinical development of other therapeutic products.

Current status: preclinical studies to identify new compounds to upregulate utrophin

Utrophin upregulation

Aim:
To increase the levels of the dystrophin homologue utrophin in muscle.

Background:
Utrophin is a protein that is very similar to dystrophin and forms the same link between cell skeleton and connective tissue dystrophin does, but primarily in non muscle tissues. During muscle development or regeneration, utrophin is located at the membrane of muscle fibers. However, when dystrophin production is initiated, dystrophin will replace utrophin. In adult muscles utrophin is expressed at very low levels and mainly located at the transition of nerve to muscle (neuromuscular junction). In Duchenne patients and animal models, however, utrophin is expressed at the muscle fiber membrane as well. In patients these increased levels are still too low to be beneficial. Mouse studies have revealed that 300-500% increased levels of utrophin can functionally compensate for lack of dystrophin and delay disease progression.

Genes have a volume switch, which is regulated by special proteins that can turn a gene off, or set it to low or high in different tissues (resulting in low or high levels of protein, respectively). The utrophin gene switch is set to a very low volume in muscle. Thousands of drugs are screened in order to find those that can increase the volume of the utrophin gene.

Ezutromid (discontinued)

Clinical trials:
Drugs to enhance utrophin expression in cultured cells and animal models have been identified by Summit PLC (John Tinsley and Kay Davies, UK) and BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc.. BioMarin has completed a phase 1 clinical trial where ezutromid (then named BMN-195) was tested in healthy volunteers. Unfortunately, the amount of ezutromid that ended up in the blood of the volunteers was considered too low to lead to utrophin upregulation. BioMarin therefore stopped the development of this compound. Meanwhile, Summit produced an optimized formulation that should allow improved uptake.

Clinical trials 2:
Summit has tested the new formulation of ezutromid in healthy volunteers and observed that uptake was sufficient to enable utrophin upregulation when taken with a meal. This formulation was tested in DMD patients in 3 different doses and uptake resulted in sufficient levels in blood for two of the 12 patients. A follow up trial has been performed where the formulation was tested with a high-fat meal. This improved uptake with 6/12 Duchenne patients having drug levels expected to increase utrophin expression by 30-50% based on mouse data. A phase 2 trial to assess efficiency in ambulant Duchenne patients is currently ongoing (and fully recruited) in the UK and the USA. For an interim analysis, a biopsy was taken after 24 weeks of treatment showing a 7% increase in utrophin levels. A phase 3 confirmatory study is being prepared. Analysis after 48 weeks revealed that the primary endpoint and secondary outcomes were not met (i.e. the drug had no therapeutic effect) and Summit announced that the development of ezutromid will be discontinued for Duchenne.

Other ways to enhance utrophin levels

Additional approaches to enhance utrophin levels are in the preclinical phase. Biglycan from Tivorsan aims to increase both utrophin and nNOS. Laminin-111 from Prothelia aims to increase utrophin and integrin (another protein that links muscle fibers to connective tissue and thus provides stability).